Miscarriages of Justice

â€Å"It’s a general problem not specific to the law of the United Kingdom a criminal justice system characterized by an emphasis on crime control rather than due process will inevitably produce miscarriage of justice. † In an imaginary world the law would always give the correct results but in a real world it’s the other way. When they don’t which way do they tend to err? Which way do we want to err? We want the law to err on the side of acquitting guilty people rather than convicting ones.It is generally accepted that the price of a fair Criminal Justice System will be acquittal on a technicality of those who have committed criminal offences or because of a failure of evidence, where as conviction of the innocent is never acceptable and should it arise speedy measures should be taken to rectify the injustice. The criminal law must be enforced efficiently by the agencies to police the criminal law.There are two main values that influence the criminal Just ice System, the crime control model which focuses to free society from crime and the due process model which focuses on individual liberties to be protected. The crime control model ensures that a civilized society can protect all of its citizens from victimization by criminals. But whether this has happened is questionable because when the Criminal Justice System is tilted more towards crime control there is a chance of an innocent person being convicted of a crime he never committed thus forming a miscarriage of justice.In recent times countries like United Kingdom, America, Canada and Ireland have tilted more towards crime control mainly because of the terrorist attacks that shook those nations. Moreover the racial attitude in the police and also in the society has led the crime control to be harsh on the society. The miscarriages that happen maybe due to discriminatory police practices, it may be due to incompetent scientific evidence or the over-reliance of the court on expert testimony. Where mistakes, made by those who have power within the process so this power when abused can have critical consequences.The protection of innocent remains fundamental to the process of justice and for many the sole purpose, it should not be absolute according to Ashworth (1998). The acquittal of guilty persons can also be seen as a miscarriage of justice. The process of justice is one marked by the use of agency and individual discretion, most notably by the police. Both the due process and crime control models allow for that discretion, although the former does seek legislative means for reducing its use and influence.The crime control model relies on presumption of guilt, the recognition that victims should have more rights than the accused, belief that prison and other punishment must be unpleasant in order to work, belief that sentences must be long to protect the public and belief that keeping order on the street is more important than following the letter of the la w. The crime control model is about focusing the purpose of the Criminal Justice Process on the demands of the majority of citizens who are law abiding.It seems clear that the current Criminal Justice Process was designed for the much lower level of crime that existed in the past and is too bureaucratic, time consuming and inefficient to deal effectively with the sheer volume of crime that now exists. This system demands a high level of informal fact finding, the case is dealt with outside of the formal court setting as much as possible. The model rightly assumes that offenders â€Å"rights are less important than victim rights and justice is for the majority of law abiding citizens not for the minority of repeat offenders.This model of justice accepts that there will be a few aberrant cases where the innocent are convicted, but this is justified by the notion that crime control overwhelmingly achieves the greater good for the majority. At the international level miscarriage of jus tice is the subject of norms but its meaning is imprecise. Lord Phillip and Brown presume ‘the man on the street would define ‘miscarriage of justice’ as the conviction of the innocent. It was stated in the Court of Appeal case of Exp.Bateman(1994) that man might define the term more broadly, to include those convicted when they should not have been. In countries the policing the law we see that more power has been vested in the police which is one reason for the crime control model to cause miscarriages of justice. Specially in America after the 9/11 terrorist attack the government has taken measures to prevent crimes as much as possible. The 9/11 attack not only influenced the government but influence the society to look at people an a suspicious way.For example after the 9/11 attack a muslim person, with his beard and his dress code, walks in the street with a bag on his hand or back, people look at him as if he is a terrorist with a bomb. This view of society should change for it is society that subjects the police and the government to undue pressure. In 2005 the terrorist attack in London (7/7) killed 56 people and 700 were injured. This was the largest and deadliest terrorist attack in London in history. It is clear that law enforcement agencies powers have increases with the statutes that have been implemented.The Terrorist Act 200 created a power to carry out blanket stop and searches. The Anti- Terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 introduced new powers for the Treasury to freeze terrorist funds and control orders on terrorist suspects can be imposed under the Terrorism Act 2005. The Terrorist Act 2006 gives police the power to detain terrorist suspects up to 28 days. Not only the acts gave the police powers but it always helped them misuse it. The Police Reform Act 202 supplements existing police powers which follow the established trend towards broadening powers of law enforcement agencies and diluting the safeguards for the susp ect.The ‘war on terror’ is now a common feature of crime prevention and detection in United Kingdom. Police appear to tour the streets in far greater numbers than they did prior to 9/11 and 7/7 attacks. More over there is an issue as to an ethnic minority in the law enforcement agencies. Local communities, where those being policed have felt for some years that powers possessed by the police have become too intrusive and are being used in a discriminatory way to target particular groups within the community.Research has shown that that Black and Asian people are more likely to be stopped under the provisions of the Terrorism Act 2000 than white people. When police powers are increased for the protection of citizens from terrorist attack they need to be employed even more carefully to ensure that citizens do not become as vulnerable to the police as they do to the terrorist attack. However increased powers of policing maybe necessary to contain the threat of terror and t o ensure national security is maintained.Recent cases have showed that where police and other agencies have made a mistake or has been misused their powers there has been a miscarriage of justice. In Dabilola Taylor’s case it was observed how lack of techniques and skills on the part of the investigating officers resulted in bringing to justice who killed Dabilola. In Stephen Lawrence case it was proved that there was racism in the police force. In Confait it was revealed that the conviction based on confession had been made subject to oppression. JeanCharles de Menezes was shot by the Metropolitan Police armed forces who believed he was a terrorist but later found out he was not. Moreover the changes that have been taken place within the statutes also may cause a miscarriage of justice. In Sam Hallam’s case the witness’s evidence was not inconsistent with the earlier evidence. The long standing rule at common law was that where a witness’s testimony in c ourt was inconsistent with a previous statement, it could not be treated as evidence as to the truth of its contents. Juries could not take account of the contents of such statements in reaching their verdict.This rule was changed by section 119 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 which now allows previous inconsistent statements to be admitted in evidence. Reforms and recommendations have been implemented to reduce the rate of crime and not let an innocent person be guilty of a crime he never committed. The Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 came into force The CCRC is charged with reviewing convictions and sentences referring them to the appropriate court if it finds a â€Å"real possibility† that the court will judge a conviction unsafe or a sentence excessive.The CCRC covers England Wales and Northern Ireland and receive almost 1000 new applications each year. One could say that the implementation of the CCRC has been a big impact because it gives the proper resu lt. The CCRC first review was that of Derek Bentley where the Court of Appeal quashed the conviction unsafe, which was a victory for the commission but not for Derek Bentley, who was hung way back in 1953. The commissions do produce good result but the fact is that it takes a long time to deliver the goods.Many reforms have been implemented in recent years have eliminated or significantly reduced the number of wrongful convictions arising as a result of or permitted because of lax procedures, notably Police and Criminal Evidence Act and the rules on the disclosure of evidence by the Crown. According to Roskill report crime control strategies tend to stress towards The English System has been charactarised in some ways by the move from crime control to due process over the last 15-20 years. It is notable that the society wants to be free of crime and also they need their liberties to be protected but it is hard thing to achieve.All of human activity, the criminal justice included is imperfect and sadly justice will not always prevail. Some of the causes are beyond the criminal justice agencies or even the content of procedural rules and substantive law. As the cases show the crime control model does causes more miscarriage of justices. Therefore it is rightly to conclude that a criminal justice system characterized by an emphasis on crime control rather than due process will inevitably produce miscarriages of justice.

Anchoring Matter for Fresher Party

Meaning of Bank It is generally said that the word â€Å"BANK† has been originated in Italy. In the middle of 12th century there was a great financial crisis in Italy due to war. To meet the war expenses, the government of that period imposed a forced subscribed loan on citizens of the country at the interest of 5% per annum. Such loans were known as Compara, Mintuo etc. The most common name was Monte. In Germany the word Monte was named as Bank or Banke. According to some writers, the word Bank has been derived from the word Banke. It is also said that the word Bank has been derived from the word Banco which means a banch.The Jews money lenders in Italy used to transact their business sitting on banches at different market places. When any of them used to feel to meet his obligations, his banco or banch would be broken by the angry creditors. The word Bankrupt seems to be originated from broken banco. Since, the banking system has been originated from money lending business, it is rightly argued that the word Bank has been originated from the world banco. Today the word bank is used as a comprehensive term for a number institutions carrying on certain kinds of financial business.In practice, the work Bank means which borrows money from one class of people and again lends money to another class of people for interest or profit. Definition of a Bank Oxford Dictionary defines a bank as â€Å"an establishment for custody of money, which it pays out on customer's order. † Definition of banking In general terms, the business activity of accepting and safeguarding money owned by other individuals and entities, and then lending out this money in order to earn a profit. Read more: http://www. investorwords. com/5413/banking. html#ixzz27ewFzo5g Characteristics / Features of a Bank v 1. Dealing in MoneyBank is a financial institution which deals with other people's money i. e. money given by depositors. 2. Individual / Firm / Company A bank may be a person, firm or a company. A banking company means a company which is in the business of banking. 3. Acceptance of Deposit A bank accepts money from the people in the form of deposits which are usually repayable on demand or after the expiry of a fixed period. It gives safety to the deposits of its customers. It also acts as a custodian of funds of its customers. 4. Giving Advances A bank lends out money in the form of loans to those who require it for different purposes. . Payment and Withdrawal A bank provides easy payment and withdrawal facility to its customers in the form of cheques and drafts, It also brings bank money in circulation. This money is in the form of cheques, drafts, etc. 6. Agency and Utility Services A bank provides various banking facilities to its customers. They include general utility services and agency services. 7. Profit and Service Orientation A bank is a profit seeking institution having service oriented approach. 8. Ever increasing Functions Banking is an evo lutionary concept. There is continuous expansion and diversification as regards he functions, services and activities of a bank. 9. Connecting Link A bank acts as a connecting link between borrowers and lenders of money. Banks collect money from those who have surplus money and give the same to those who are in need of money. 10. Banking Business A bank's main activity should be to do business of banking which should not be subsidiary to any other business. 11. Name Identity A bank should always add the word â€Å"bank† to its name to enable people to know that it is a bank and that it is dealing in money. Type 1. Saving Banks Saving banks are established to create saving habit among the people.These banks are helpful for salaried people and low income groups. The deposits collected from customers are invested in bonds, securities, etc. At present most of the commercial banks carry the functions of savings banks. Postal department also performs the functions of saving bank. T ype 2. Commercial Banks Commercial banks are established with an objective to help businessmen. These banks collect money from general public and give short-term loans to businessmen by way of cash credits, overdrafts, etc. Commercial banks provide various services like collecting cheques, bill of xchange, remittance money from one place to another place. In India, commercial banks are established under Companies Act, 1956. In 1969, 14 commercial banks were nationalised by Government of India. The policies regarding deposits, loans, rate of interest, etc. of these banks are controlled by the Central Bank. Type 3. Industrial Banks / Development Banks Industrial / Development banks collect cash by issuing shares & debentures and providing long-term loans to industries. The main objective of these banks is to provide long-term loans for expansion and modernisation of industries.In India such banks are established on a large scale after independence. They are Industrial Finance Corporat ion of India (IFCI), Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) and Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI). Type 4. Land Mortgage / Land Development Banks Land Mortgage or Land Development banks are also known as Agricultural Banks because these are formed to finance agricultural sector. They also help in land development. In India, Government has come forward to assist these banks. The Government has guaranteed the debentures issued by such banks.There is a great risk involved in the financing of agriculture and generally commercial banks do not take much interest in financing agricultural sector. Type 5. Indigenous Banks Indigenous banks means Money Lenders and Sahukars. They collect deposits from general public and grant loans to the needy persons out of their own funds as well as from deposits. These indigenous banks are popular in villages and small towns. They perform combined functions of trading and banking activities. Certain well-known indian commun ities like Marwaries and Multani even today run specialised indigenous banks.Type 6. Central / Federal / National Bank Every country of the world has a central bank. In India, Reserve Bank of India, in U. S. A, Federal Reserve and in U. K, Bank of England. These central banks are the bankers of the other banks. They provide specialised functions i. e. issue of paper currency, working as bankers of government, supervising and controlling foreign exchange. A central bank is a non-profit making institution. It does not deal with the public but it deals with other banks. The principal responsibility of Central Bank is thorough control on currency of a country. Type 7.Co-operative Banks In India, Co-operative banks are registered under the Co-operative Societies Act, 1912. They generally give credit facilities to small farmers, salaried employees, small-scale industries, etc. Co-operative Banks are available in rural as well as in urban areas. The functions of these banks are just simila r to commercial banks. Type 8. Exchange Banks Hong Kong Bank, Bank of Tokyo, Bank of America are the examples of Foreign Banks working in India. These banks are mainly concerned with financing foreign trade. Following are the various functions of Exchange Banks :- . Remitting money from one country to another country, 2. Discounting of foreign bills, 3. Buying and Selling Gold and Silver, and 4. Helping Import and Export Trade. Type 9. Consumers Banks Consumers bank is a new addition to the existing type of banks. Such banks are usually found only in advanced countries like U. S. A. and Germany. The main objective of this bank is to give loans to consumers for purchase of the durables like Motor car, television set, washing machine, furniture, etc. The consumers have to repay the loans in easy installments. Definition of ‘Central Bank'The entity responsible for overseeing the monetary system for a nation (or group of nations). Central banks have a wide range of responsibilitie s, from overseeing monetary policy to implementing specific goals such as currency stability, low inflation and full employment. Central banks also generally issue currency, function as the bank of the government, regulate the credit system, oversee commercial banks, manage exchange reserves and act as a lender of last resort. Investopedia explains ‘Central Bank' The central banking system in the U. S. is known as the Federal Reserve System commonly known as â€Å"the Fed†), which is composed of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks located in major cities throughout the country. The main tasks of the Federal Reserve are to supervise and regulate banks, implement monetary policy by buying and selling U. S. Treasury bonds and steer interest rates. Ben Bernanke currently serves as the chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve. FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BANK M. H. Do-Kock has explained the following seven functions of a central bank in his book â€Å"Central Bankin g† which economists have generally accepted. 1. Monopoly of note-issue. 2.Banker, agent and adviser to the government. 3. Custodian of cash reserves of commercial banks. 4. Custodian of nation’s reserves of international currencies. 5. Lender of the last resort 6. Clearing house function 7. Credit control Besides the aforesaid seven functions there are some other functions also, namely: (i) Collection of data. (ii) Role of central bank in developing countries. (iii) Central bank and industrial and agricultural development. (iv) International financial institutions. 1. Monopoly of Note-Issue: Note-issue primarily is the main function of a central bank in every country.These days, in all the countries where there is a central bank generally it has got the monopoly or the sole right of note-issue. In the beginning this was not the function of Central Bank but gradually all the central banks have acquired this function. First of all, Central Bank of England got the right of note-issue in the year 1844. In actual practice, upto the beginning of twentieth century, generally central banks were recognized as the banks of note-issue. In India, R. B. I. , the central bank of India has got the right of note-issue. 2. Banker, Agent & Adviser to the Government:As banker to the government, central bank provides all those services and facilities to the government which public gets from the ordinary banks. It operates the accounts of the public enterprises. It manages government departmental undertakings and government funds and when there is a need gives loans to the government. It looks after the management of public debt. It accepts the payment of taxes from the public on behalf of the government and makes payment for the cheques issued by the government. It also undertakes transactions relating to foreign currencies on behalf of the government. 3.Custodian of Cash Reserves of Commercial Bank: Central bank is the bank of banks. This signifies that it has the s ame relationship with the commercial banks in the country which they have with their customers. It provides security to their cash reserves, gives them loan at the times of need, gives them advice on financial and economic matters and works as clearing house among various member banks. A definite percentage of deposits of commercial banks are kept as reserve with the central bank. This leads to centralisation of cash reserve and facilitates working of credit control. These funds re of great significance during the time of emergency. 4. Custodian of Nation's Reserves of International Currencies: Central bank is the custodian of the foreign currency obtained from various countries. This has become an important function of central bank, these days, because with its help it can stabilize the external value of the currency. This function has become highly important after the World Depression of 1929 and the establishment of the International Monetary Fund. 5. Lender of the Last Resort: C entral bank works as lender of the last resort for commercial banks because in the times of need t provides them financial assistance and accommodation. Whenever a commercial bank faces financial crisis, central bank as lender of the last resort comes to its rescue by advancing loans and the bank is saved from being failed. Central bank helps commercial banks by discounting their bills and securities. 6. Clearing House Function: All the commercial banks have their accounts with the central bank. Therefore, central bank settles the mutual transactions of banks and thus saves all banks contacting each other individually for setting their individual transactions, in this way; the unnecessary cash ransactions between individual banks are avoided. 7. Credit Control: This is a very important function. These days, the most important function of central bank is to control the volume of credit for bringing about stability in the general price level and accomplishing various other socio-econo mic objectives. There are number of methods which a central bank may use for controlling the volume of credit such as bank rate, open market operations, change in reserve ratio and various selective controls. These methods have been discussed in detail in the next question.

User Satisfaction about Mobile Phone Network in the East Midland Area Literature review

User Satisfaction about Mobile Phone Network in the East Midland Area of the UK - Literature review Example User Satisfaction about Mobile Phone Network in the East Midland Area of the UK As a result of this, increased users are able to have access to the radio bandwidth in increased numbers. Nowadays, calls using mobile phones can be made in wider areas. Users of a particular service do not own the base stations and use the mobile phone inside a private base station’s range. There are hundreds of mobile phone networks in the East Midland area of UK. This has created a lot of competition for the new and emerging companies that want to establish their business in East Midland, UK. In order to gain competitive advantage, companies need to identify and improve their performance in the criteria according to which the users evaluate their performance. The area of East Midlands includes Derbyshire, Rutland, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, and Lincolnshire. There is a broad range of mobile phone networks functioning in the area that include but are not limited to Tesco Mobile, Pro Park UK, G S M International, CBS Mobiles Ltd., A1 Comms, 02 Store, A ce Connections, CRC Ltd., M-Viron, Fone Bitz Ltd., T-Mobile, Car-fi and M B C. Many of these are well-reputed companies that are known for the quality of their service far and wide. There is a vast range of mobile phone networks in UK that provide the users with a broad array of services and deals. Generally, all networks provide their users with good services, though there is disparity between the quality of customer service given by different mobile phone networks.... Millions of users in the area are quite satisfied with the service provided by Vodafone in East Midlands UK. â€Å"Switching to Vodafone was the best thing I did, my monthly costs were reduced considerably and as a bonus Vodafone switched my contract from Vodafone 250 to Vodafone 500 after a month of use† (Ciao, 2011a). From a top up card, users of the Orange SIM can put up to ?50 to use. SMS charges in the ?50 top up service are up to 60% lesser as compared to most of the mobile networks in the East Midlands. O2 Store has been providing the users with excellent service in East Midlands, UK for many years. One of the users said, â€Å"...people who don't like the O2 network, making claims that they are unreliable and over charge but to be honest I couldn't ask for more. Let me tell you why I chose O2 as my network and why I will be a customer for life† (Ciao, 2011b). Some of the potential advantages that O2 offers in comparison to its competitors in the East Midlands, U K include cheap rates and frequent offers, wonderful and 24/7 online customer service and broad coverage, though O2 turns out to be costly when it has to be used abroad. T-Mobile is one of the strongest competitors among the mobile phone networks in East Midland, UK. Advantages offered by T-Mobile over other networks include good relations with customers and good price plans whereas the disadvantages include lesser secrecy in the release of phones and limited number of customer service agents. T-Mobile is recommended by up to 47 per cent of the users (Ciao, 2011c). Nevertheless, T-Mobile provides users with one of the cheapest services in the area. Users of the T-Mobile can receive free insurance for three months, free phone with connection and free of cost voicemail retrial for no more than

Mental health promotion workshop Literature review

Mental health promotion workshop - Literature review Example Aside from incorporating the concept of interpersonal variables, Health Promotion Model can be use to predict people’s behaviour concerning health promotion which increases the healthcare workers’ ability to deal with people with mental health problems (Allender, Rector and Warner, 2014, p. 370). Precede and Proceed Model makes it easier for healthcare workers to â€Å"plan, implement, and evaluate the effectiveness of health promotion programmes (p. 370). Under the precede model include social issues, epidemiology of certain illness, education, policies, and implementation whereas the proceed model include process, impact, and outcome evaluation (Allender, Rector and Warner, 2014, p. 370). Completing the report on mental health promotion made me able to develop some strategies that are effective in treating patients with cognitive, behavioural and affective problems based on the SMART criteria. 1. By the end of July 2014, the administrator of a couple of nearby schools will be approached for permission to conduct mental health teachings to the students’ parents. After communicating with the school teachers, a schedule will be set whereby the students’ parents will be invited to attend child development programme within the school vicinity. 2. By end of September 2014, social networking site like Facebook will be used to communicate with parents who are interested in learning more about strategic ways on how to prevent the long-term consequences of childhood abuse and neglect. Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2013, July). Long-term Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect. [Online] Available at: https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/long_term_consequences.cfm [Accessed April 13, 2014]. Every Child Matters. (2010, September 6). Effective communication with children, young people and families.[Online] Available at:

Growing up in the Ditital Age Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Growing up in the Ditital Age - Research Paper Example Net Generation is a force for social transformation from education and work to collaborations and socialization. With their reflexes trained for speed and freedom, Net-Genre is empowered to transform the world from inside out. They are already transforming society, from education and workplace to marketplace and family, they are influencing every aspect of modern life. They are replacing the culture of control with a culture of enablement (Tapscott 6).This paper explores the influences of Net Generation on education, work and family as discussed in Don Tapscott's remarkable book, "Grown Up Digital: How the Net Generation is Changing World". Net Generation (1977-1997) People born during 1946 and 1964 are called baby-boomers who became TV Generation (Leung 107). Gen X consists of adults between the ages of 32 and 43.They are highly aggressive communicators and media-centered. Gen X is media (TV, radio, film, and internet) savvy and their habits resemble to Net Generation. Gen X is foll owed by Net Generation, the children of baby boomers. The Net Generation consists of children born between January 1977 and December 1997. In these 21 years, 81.1 million children were born who make 27 percent of the U.S. population called Millennials or Generation Y. They have outnumbered the baby-boomers adults. This Net Generation is entirely different from all other generations in history since they are born in a digital environment (Tapscott 2).As Tapscott puts it, "they are bathed in bits that they think it's all part of the natural landscape"(2). Currently, the Net Generation constitutes 30 percent of the total population as compared to 29 percent of their parents' baby boomers generation. As a rival to boomers and their culture, it is imparting huge cultural influences. However, the huge impact is not due to the size but Net Generation's ability to grow in an age of revolution in telecommunication. Boomer parents engaged with a new technology in their formative years like te levision, however, it was much more limited in its scope.Net Generation is exposed to an entirely different context and environment as compared to their parents and grandparents (Denton et al. 2). Net Generation has eight basic characteristics that make them stand out from their boomer parents and other generations. They accolade freedom and freedom to choose, they believe in customization and collaborations. They prefer a conversation rather than a lecture. They scrutinize and insist on integrity. They believe in having fun, no matter if it's school or work. They need speed and innovation (Tapscott 6). Changing ways of Communication Members of Net Generation are between the ages of 11 and 31 now. They multi-task quite heavily and use technology in a different way. For Net-Genre, mobile phone are not for calling and emailing, they use it for texting, surfing web, finding directions, taking pictures, making videos, and collaborating with others. They hang out on Facebook, MySpace, an d Skype. Everyone is as cyber-sophisticated as the next person is. They turn to internet for everything they need (Tapscott 9). Education System The Net-Gen is the most ethnically diverse, largest, and the most female dominated college population in the history (O'Donnell qtd. in Tapscott 123). Unlike baby-boomers' cramming model of seeking knowledge, Net-Generation is facing a fast-paced age of information technology where one has

Mathematics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Mathematics - Essay Example Mathematics is major component of our culture and we need to learn more and more of it. Mathematics has been considered a necessity and essentiality what ever time period. Plato's Academy was marked with phrase "Let no one ignorant of Geometry enter here" Mathematics enjoys unshakable foundation and its basis is pure rationality. It promotes rational thinking and ideas and leaves nothing to chance. Even the chance or the probability is dealt in a very rational and logical manner. Logic grew into thriving field through algebraically minded mathematicians like George Boole, Ernst Schroder, Balzano, Ferge and Hilbert. The history of Mathematics goes as far back as 30000 BC when Paleolithic people in Central Europe and France recorded numbers on bones. Uses of early geometric designs were found to belong to 25000 BC. In 2000 BC Harappans adopted a uniform system of weight and measure. Quadratic equations were solved in 1950 BC. In 1850 BC Babylonians came to know about Pythagoras theorem. Almost at the same time multiplication tables were used by them. Sexagesimal number system was used to predict the position of Sun, moon and other planets in 500 BC. Hippocrates wrote "Elements" in 450 BC which is first compilation of elements of geometry. Euclid gave a systematic development of geometry in Stoicheion (The Elements). He also gave the laws of reflection in Catoptrics. In 250 BC Archimedes floated Archimedes Principles and gave an approximate value of . In 127 BC Hippocras discovered the precision of Equinox and calculated the length of year. In about 60 AD Heron of Alexandria wrote Metrica (Measur ement), which contained the formula for calculating Areas and Volumes. The Maya civilization in 250 AD used an almost place-value number system to base 20. In 499 AD Aryabhatta calculated to be 3.1416. In about 850 AD Thabit Ibn Qurra made important mathematical discoveries such as extension of the concept of number to real number, integral calculus, theorems in spherical geometry and non Euclidian geometry. Lot of other developments in mathematics need to be mentioned here but the only point is to show that mathematics developed through different generations and in different societies and cultures, which means that Mathematics was inevitable for one and all and was the nucleus for discoveries, inventions and development. Mathematics is one subject that transcends time and culture. The Pythagorean Theorem is true in any culture and every century, and is studied wherever mathematics is taught. In a world of rapid change, mathematics is one thing that endures. Its heritage is treasure we pass from generation to generation, a common store of wisdom whose usefulness takes a different manifestation in various culture and settings. Mathematics is rooted in timeless values and still is evolving. Newton gave mathematical laws of motion only three centuries ago. Lately new ways of measurements are being propounded which helps in advancement of science and commerce. Mathematics is used as an essential tool in almost all fields like

Asymmetric or symmetric security key Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Asymmetric or symmetric security key - Case Study Example In this scenario, both the sender and receiver decide for the shared key before sending/receiving the data and then they can start encrypting and decrypting data between them by making use of that key. Some of the well known examples of symmetric key encryption comprise TripleDES (Data Encryption Standard) and AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) (Stretch, 2010; Ezeobika, 2010). Fig1 demonstrates the process of Symmetric key encryption: In addition, DES, 3DES, AES, and RC4 are some of the well known examples of symmetric encryption algorithm. In this scenario, 3DES and AES are widely utilized in IPsec and other types of VPNs (Stretch, 2010; KetuWare, 2004). Asymmetric encryption is also referred as public-key cryptography. As compared to the symmetric encryption method in asymmetric encryption two keys are used: one for encryption and another for decryption. Basically, this encryption technique uses two keys for the data encryption: a public key and a private key. In this scenario, the public key is made available for all so it can be used to encrypt data and information by anyone who wants to send a message to the person who has the key. However, the private key is not disclosed to anyone and is employed to decrypt received data. Most commonly seen example of asymmetric key encryption is RSA (Stretch, 2010; Ezeobika, 2010). Fig2 demonstrates the process of Symmetric key encryption: Excellent Support for Message Authentication: In view of the fact that the asymmetric encryption technique supports the digital signatures which allows the data receiver/sender to authenticate that the data is actually received from a specific sender. Integrity of data: As discussed above, the use of digital signatures also ensures the integrity of data. In addition, this technique allows the receiver to become aware of if the data was modified during transmission because a digitally signed data cannot be altered without invalidating the

Menu Selection Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Menu Selection - Research Paper Example This paper discusses some of the important ways to interact with App. Additionally, there are many other types of menus, which have their own advantages and disadvantages, for instance, the pop up menu saves space on the screen as they are not existed physically on the screen. In this way, it provides an advantage to the users that they need to know only the selected area options. Menu-driven interfaces have been becoming more popular due to a number of advantages they provide. Each strategy has its own advantages, however, all advantages of menus are related to the user interaction. In order to attract the user, menu-driven interfaces play their role, as they allow the user to select any option easily. If the user has not selected a right option, then it provides the facility to go back to the previous state. Menu-driven interfaces enhance the usability of the system. Each section has its own color, which helps the user to differentiate between different screens (BBC, 2014). A good user interface, along with the menus, enhance the usability, simplicity, attraction and other factors that become effective due to the presence of nice menu-driven right according to the user requirements as well as the user interests (Digital Zoo, 2014). Menu-driven interfaces basically follow some fundamental principles of a good interface, which are right according to the users’ demands and requirements regarding any type of menu strategy design. These principles are: the structure principles, visibility principles, feedback principles, tolerance principles, and reuse principle (Ward, 2013). Menu-driven interface hides the complexity in the background, and users can check only those options, which they want to check. And the most important thing is the aesthetic sense of these menus, as they are pleasing to eyes. As the number of websites and applications are resulting in an increasing number of users, where there are several kinds of users, like novice user and

Database server manager Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Database server manager - Coursework Example When archiving online redo log files previous redo log information is also preserved for tasks such as media recovery. You can set the pre-allocated online redo log file continue to be in use for storage of the resent database changes. This is a set of the operating system files which keep record of all changes made in any database buffer, these changes include data, rollback segments and index, these a\changes are recorded whether they are committed or not committed. Every redo entry is a combination of vector like structure illustrating atomic change to the database. Always the redo secures changes made to database buffer in the memory which has not been written to a data file. Once you have established the cause of the crash use database recovery software to recover the crashed database from the crashed database. In the process of database recovery make sure you restore it to the point where the database was that is ensuring you have the latest database data that was recorded before it had crashed. Since changing of database information before doing anything on the problem at hand I will back up the database so that I may avoid future problems which may arise due to change of database records. After the database backup now I will interrogate the user on what kind of data was entered wrongly. Depending on the nature of the information I may take another action by involving the relevant authorities before I make any changes. To evaluate the retention of customers is by queering the data ware house to determine whether the older customers still make transactions if not the organization should make follow up in order to bring them back on board. Parallel server technology coordinator looks individual operation in a SQL statement’s execution plan and then determines way in which each row operated on in the operation should be divided or shared among the parallel execution servers. The star query separates business operations data

UKs Land Use Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

UKs Land Use Planning - Essay Example This responsibility is vested with the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister in England, in Wales and Scotland the Welsh Assembly Government and the Scottish Executive respectively. In addition these departments have to develop national planning policy guidance within which local authorities have to function (British Geological Survey, n.d.). The endeavour of the Planning Practice Standard is to develop the environmental impact assessment, EIA, as a planning tool in order to promote the objectives of town and country planning. "This PPS updates the RTPI Practice Advice Note 13, published in 1995, to reflect the requirements of the amended EIA Regulations, which came into effect in 1999". In order to implement the European Directive 85/337/EEC, as amended by the Directive 97/11/EC, legislation on environmental impact assessment has been introduced in the UK. Section 71A of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, contains the requirement to carry out EIA of certain planning proposals. (The Royal Town Planning Institute, 2001). The use of land determines irrevocably the fate of natural and semi-natural ecosystems and consequently, sustainable development is ably assisted by Nature conservation policies and their relations with land use exemplify the importance being accorded to planning. This process makes it essential to establish fundamental links between developments in particular localities and environmental changes on a world - wide basis. This methodology requires the adoption of a strategic approach to the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity (Cowell and Owens 2002). The basic human responsibility to protect and improve the environment for the benefit of present and future generations was expressed on the global level as early as 1972, in principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration, but the Aarhus Convention is the first international legal instrument to extend this concept to a set of legal obligations (Stec and Casey - Lefkowitz 2000). Land-use planning is concerned not only with site protection but of late; it is proving of immense relevance in the adoption of a proactively strategic approach to the conservation of nature. This approach must not only concentrate on preservation of what has survived but more importantly, it has to address itself to the problem of habitat restoration and enhancement. In the UK this change is visible in legislation and in the guidance being provided to the local planning authorities from government, statutory agencies and non-governmental organisations, for ensuring the protection of the biodiversity. Planning and nature conservation policy have been influenced to a great extent by the latest interpretations of sustainable development, especially those which involve the concepts of environmental capital and capacity. The role of land use planning has been highlighted by European legislation and in particular the Habitats Directive, which aims to conserve European species and habitats . This Directive, enjoins upon national governments the requirement to nominate Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), which are to be provided with stringent protection. That there are limitations to this approach is borne out by the fact that, despite their protected status, many sites have been lost or damaged as a result of land-use change. The major culprit in this aspect has been development as defined in town and country planning legislation, which has

Why Marijuana Should Remain Illegal Essay Example for Free

Why Marijuana Should Remain Illegal Essay Specific Purpose:To teach my audience how to drive a stick shift car. Thesis Statement:By learning how to start a stick shift car, changing from first to fifth gear and reverse you would someday like to buy a stick shift car. Organizational Pattern:Chronological Introduction: Did you know that by knowing how to drive a Stick shift car you can save money on the initial price, maintenance, and fuel economy? How many of you guys could use an extra couple thousand. I am going to teach you how to drive a stick shift car and to do so you will need to know how to properly start the car, change the gears, and how to reverse the car. Body: 1. First, you will need to get in your car adjust your seat, so you can reach all three pedals. A. You will need to put your foot all the way down on the clutch. B. Then put your car in neutral so you can take your foot off the pedal 2. Second, you will need to put your foot on the clutch then put it in first gear with your foot on the clutch A. As you start to ease your foot off the pedal you need to start stepping on the gas your two feet must past each other at same time. B. Then you will completely take your foot off the clutch as you start to step on the gas you will no longer need your foot on the clutch. The process will repeat 3. Third, you will need to be at a full stop then you will need to put your car in neutral, A. Step on the clutch then push down on the knob till you feel a little nudge B. Then you will change the gear as you would do with your first gear C. You will need start to ease off clutch then step on gas pedal D. Finally you will need to come to a complete stop put your car in neutral and turn your car off. Step on the clutch then put your car in first gear and pull the hand break. Conclusion: Now that you all know how to start a stick shift car, change the gears and put it in reverse. Hope you guys can enjoy driving a stick shift car and also the benefits you get when you buy a stick shift car.

International human resources Essay Example for Free

International human resources Essay It is the biggest challenge of companies today to maintain and attract best employees thus the realization in holding trainings and conferences for top executives to level officers is exceedingly in demand. Initiating strategies and solutions regarding employee retention and human resource management keep on going to minimize costs and money. There are many promising solutions in going through a lot of obstacles in human resource recruitment. We may start on some questions that would spark a new beginning: are the employees are given the chance to speak? Are new ideas accepted? Are benefits really beneficial to employees? Does the employees’ opinion count? Are works valued, evaluated and rewarded on their performance? This are simple questions that has an impact to the existing problems in many companies, regardless of size, incorporating other issues like repatriation, better opportunities, poor treatment, differences in culture and disagreement on the direction of the company, lack of recognition, indefinite growth prospects and poor relationship among co-workers. Keeping people and maintaining them for a longer period of time is the most difficult and challenging tasks for all human resources managers nowadays, hopefully, we will answer possible keys and solutions to these burning questions throughout the discussion. Why are people leaving from one company to another? A wide variety of reasons why are people leaving their jobs to find new companies includes: expectations were not satisfactorily fulfilled, unsuitable for the role, do not fit with the company’s culture, insufficient opportunities for growth and development, inadequate acknowledgment and admiration, problems with a manager or supervisor, not satisfied with the compensation, stress, lack of work and life balance, and lack of confidence in the company and leadership (Meyers). According to Susan Heathfield (Heathfield, 2007), most employees are leaving their work for reasons of searching new opportunities with other companies. Three top reasons were identified by Heathfield: fifty three percent of employees look for better rewards and benefits, thirty five percent were discontented with prospects of career growth and development, and thirty two percent were ready for a new experience and new environment. The motivating factors that can enhance the continuous stay of employees were examined by Bob Losyk on his article, here are the different factors that he stated: dignity and respect, involvement and participation, pay above the industry average, showcase superior workers, and by showing support to employees (Losyk). Giving dignity and respect is one of the most important key elements in satisfying the employees, harsh words, shouting, insults, and abuse of power will only result to demoralization, low morale, increase possibilities of absenteeism, and in turn resignation. Losyk added that employers should be treated with high respect, worth and goodness, let them relax, be independent and empowered. Do not crash on people who make mistakes instead make it more constructive and let them learn from it. Involvement and participation is also a significant factor in dealing with employees’ motivation to stay in the company, by listening to their suggestions, aspirations, and ideas can make them more involved and active much as with belongingness and partnership. Paying above the industry average will surely and literally compensate the best employee thus giving and making more money for you. Great employees should be compensated for what they gave back to the company and it should not be as simple as paying back but to reward and constantly recognize their efforts. For sure, companies who have the best employees will have more satisfied clients because of the excellent services they receive and in return a greater chance of repeat business will likely to come. Another tip from Losyk is to highlight and draw attention to outstanding employees by giving awards, certificates, extra remuneration, dinners as well as posting their photos on bulletin boards or company newsletters. To share and show support, to listen and know their personal and family problems can be a key factor for lasting relationship with employees. It will create a positive and motivating atmosphere resulting to a more productive and high-quality employees (Losyk). Increasing demand for immigrant workforce and opportunities abroad: The increasing demand of hiring cross-cultural workforce is a global necessity to respond the needs internationally. But because of the terms and conditions in hiring immigrants, it is very difficult to establish a worthy and constant employee for a particular business due to numerous alternative employment with other companies. To better understand the recruitment, hiring and retaining the best employees especially the immigrants and ethnic workers, it is important that we should consider the culture, traditions, and beliefs, know the different ethnic lifestyles and values, appreciate the impact that the immigrant workforce is influencing the management, and study the fabrications on recruitment of diverse ethnic groups. In addition to Losyk’s article, he stressed that it is significant that companies must understand the needs and desires most Hispanic and Asian workers want from a workplace, discover how to give comment to immigrant employees, determine the critical factors needed to train Asian, Hispanic and other cross-cultural groups, and create management techniques that can work and understand the involvement and recognition with the ethnic groups (Losyk). Further problems encountered by other employers is when their employees who are assigned to work overseas over a period of time will transfer to another companies in a few months to seek greener pastures. These are real and actual happenings in most development organizations when workers or volunteers enter into a contract to gain experience overseas and marked it as a stepping stone to find great opportunities abroad. How can companies and organizations struggle to this concurrent problem? Is this just a cycle to be left out and find new workers to continue the job? Are there any other holistic means that we can manage to surpass this continuing global recruitment problem?

Critically assess the strengths and weaknesses of personal construct

Critically assess the strengths and weaknesses of personal construct In social psychology, individual difference research aims to find out why individuals act differently in the same scenarios (Butt, 2007). This essay will be looking at two different theories which study and interpret individual differences to personality in two different ways. Kellys (1955, cited in Butt, 2007; Stevens, 2002) personal construct theory and Eysenck and Rathmans (1965, cited in Butt, 2007) trait theory of personality will be outlined and then trait theory will be used to critique, and find the strengths and weaknesses of, personal construct theory to see how it contributes to our understanding of individual differences in personality. This essay will argue that the strength of the personal construct theory is that it gives a much more holistic contribution to our understanding of individual differences in personality than the trait theory, although unlike the trait theory, its weakness is that its findings can not be generalised. Personal construct theory also has stren gth in that it transcends the individual-social and agency-structure dualisms which the trait theory does not. Personal construct theory, developed by Kelly (1955, cited in Butt, 2007; Stevens, 2002) viewed personality as an individual experience. It advocates bipolar constructs that individuals use to help them understand their world, for example, stimulating-dull (Stevens, 2002). Personal construct theory uses the phenomenological approach and therefore aims to understand how individuals use their subjective, individual experiences to develop a set of personal constructions, which in turn, helps them to make sense of their world around them (Butt, 2004). This helps to understand the individuals lived experience, how they make meaning and how they come to view the world in different ways (Butt, 2007, cited in Butt, 2007). Personal construct theory therefore sees individual differences as recognising and taking account of each individuals world view and the conscious role they have in creating the individual they become and the personality they have (Butt, 2007; Stevens, 2002). To investigate each individuals set of personal constructs, Kelly (1955, cited in Butt, 2007) developed the repertory grid. This grid worked by individuals allocating personal constructs to everyone who they considered as part of their life. This subsequently allowed bipolar dimensions to be found. When analysing these constructions, it could be revealed how each individual experiences others and could show how two different individuals could make an entirely different assessment of the same person, for example, if an individual is fixed in their constructs they could come to believe that an individual who is reserved is always cold and so having a fixed personality could cause many relationship problems compared to having a fluid personality. A lot of constructing occurs subconsciously so the grid allows individuals to gain and communicate their own individual meanings of things that would otherwise be unavailable. Personal construct theory sees constructs as being adjustable and, by seeing themselves through an others eyes, individuals could make conscious decisions to change their personality and view of the world (Butt, 2007). But Kelly (1955, cited in Butt, 2007) argued that as much effort is placed in these constructions the individual may not want to change them. The fundamental parts of personal construct theory were usefully applied by Salmon (2003, cited in Butt, 2007) to education. Salmon (2003, cited in Butt, 2007) argued that to facilitate personal development, schools needed to take into account the students current personal constructs and the students also needed to be aware of their own personal constructs. Salmon (2003, cited in Butt, 2007) later developed the Salmon line, which allowed the students a tool to see how they were progressing using their own meanings about progression. In contrast to the personal construct theory, trait theories see individual differences to personality as the fixed ways that individuals vary from each other (Butt, 2007). There are many types of trait theory, although this essay is going to concentrate on Eysenck and Rathmans (1965, cited in Butt, 2007) trait theory in order to critique Kellys (1955, cited in Butt, 2007) personal construct theory. This trait theory was developed from the natural science and experimental mainstream approach to individual differences (Butt, 2007). The aim of the theory was to find general dimensions from various populations of individuals to allow trait theorists to be able to predict how, a certain individual would act in given situations. Eysenck and Rathman (1965, cited in Butt, 2007) argued that personality traits were due to biological and genetic factors and used the dimensions of extraversion-introversion and neuroticism-stability to measure personality with (Butt, 2007). Eysenck and Rathmans (1965, cited in Butt, 2007) trait theory of personality used data gained from Eysencks personality inventory questionnaire (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1963, cited in Butt, 2007) that involved many samples of individuals attributing dispositions to others (Butt, 2007). Eysenck and Rathmans (1965, cited in Butt, 2007) research led them to claim that there were two, main, unrelated dimensions of personality: extraversion and neuroticism and that these were behavioural expressions of temperament differences (Butt, 2007). Eysenck and Rathman (1965, cited in Butt, 2007) claimed that extraversion was grounded in cortical arousal and neuroticism was grounded in autonomic arousal, so the behavioural patterns were like the phenotype in biol ogy, whereas the innate brain structure is like the genotype (Butt, 2007). Eysenck reasoned that if the main dimensions in personality were found, these could have clinical application as they could be related to different kinds of neurotic behaviour which would explain why individuals acquire different types of psychological disorders (Butt, 2007). So both theories give two different ways of viewing personality. This essay will now critically analyse the strengths and weaknesses of personal construct theory using the trait theory of personality. The trait theory has been around for a long time and therefore has been researched a lot, has been very influential and has been tested extensively; this is unlike the personal construct theory which has been around for a relatively shorter period of time and so has been lacking in the same areas. The trait theory has also been seen as a more suitable way than the personal construct theory of looking at personality as it resembles the lay theories that individuals use when assessing others (Butt, 2007). Trait theories also use objective personality measurements, like the Eysenck personality inventory and this allows for large groups of individuals to be compared. This subsequently gives trait theory a wide scope for application as the trait theory findings can be used by organisations t hat need to identify trends in certain populations (Hollway, 2007). Personal construct theory data, in comparison, can not be generalised or compared across the wider population. But trait theory has got its weaknesses. Skinner (1974, cited in Butt, 2007) argued that traits do not explain personality or behaviour; they just identify trends in it. Although trait theories were designed to see how individuals react differently and consistently in certain situations (Butt, 2007), Mischel (1968, cited in Butt, 2007) argued that the evidence for this consistency is relatively small compared to the evidence there is for how people change with experience. Mischel (1968, cited in Butt, 2007) also suggests that rather than entirely reflecting the individuals personality traits, trait theory is strongly influenced by the thoughts, experiences and personality of the individual rating. The strength of objectivity within the trait theory, although helpful when comparing population, can also be viewed as a weakness of the theory. Personal construct theory data is subjective and situated in time and place unlike trait theory data which is taken out of its context making it ecologically invalid. The personal construct theory also takes into account the richness of an individuals personality (Butt, 2007) which the trait theory does not. Using phenomenology, personal construct theory attempts to see the distinctiveness of each individuals personality. Personal construct theory accepts that the individual can change and society can facilitate this change. This allows them to understand why individuals change depending on the situation and when that situation occurs and how this happens. Adaptations of personal construct theory also sees how change can happen in the future, for example, Salmons (2003, cited in Butt, 2007) version helped facilitate learning and her Salmon l ine allowed individuals to give themselves a goal and see what they needed to change in their personality to reach that goal. The trait theory, however, sees traits as biological and therefore fixed and unlikely to change. This means that it can not be used to assist changes in personality so has less practical uses than the personal construct theory. Unlike the personal construct theory, trait theory also does not take into account how an individuals social life could influence the individuals personality. A large strength of the personal construct theory is that it does not have the same extent of power relations plaguing it as the trait theory does. Personal construct theory uses qualitative interview methods which stop the researcher from having so much power over the findings of the research (Salmon, 2003, cited in Butt, 2007). The researcher uses the repertory grid to help each individual access their own personal constructs, in this way the researcher is prevented from assuming what the individuals constructs will be. Trait theorists, however, have lots of power over the individual. This is because the trait theory comes from the experimental approach. This means that the researchers that measure and put apply these measurements, for example, to create hierarchies in schools. Trait theory can therefore be misused as individuals can be judged against what is considered normal and competent by people who they believe are experts on the subject (Butt, 2007). But, personal construct theory also has its weaknesses because they do not use classification methods like the trait theories do and therefore they can not help an individual to get extra help, for example, if they need to be classified to get help with a split-personality. The personal construct theory also tried to make the researcher try to see the world through the participants eyes in order to help the participant express their constructs. But sometimes this would be impossible for the researcher, especially if they are working with an individual with a personality problem that they have no experience of. In trait theory there is an emphasis on the biological, genetic aspects of personality (Eysenck and Rathman, 1965, cited in Butt, 2007) which sees personality as fixed and coming from within the individual. But by concentrating on the individual and trying to find universal findings, the complexity and richness within each individual is lost. In education, psychometric measures have been used in such a way that teachers do nothing more than teach students how to pass tests. Salmon argued that testing students, learning becomes generalised and the students ability level becomes fixed as students become grouped depending on whether they score high, average or low on tests. This does not take into account the individual personality of each student. In personal construct theory, students are no longer seen as fixed in their abilities, Salmon argued that children do not learn in the ways stated above, instead they shift their meanings within a personal system of understandings. In this wa y each individual students personality could be such that they are good at and enjoy some types of learning and could be bad at and hate other types. So the personal construct theory has the strength of transcending the individual-society dualism. The way trait theory sees traits as fixed, determined, genetic and unchanging through environments also suggests that individuals have no agency in their personality traits and social structures did not affect their personality traits whatsoever. In the personal construct theory, Kelly (1965, 2007, cited in Butt, 2007), for example, put great emphasis on the society that individuals are constructed in. People were seen to use their experiences to actively create their worlds, even though these constructs and understandings that were gained from the social world sometimes restrict agency. So the personal construct theory has the strength of transcending the agency-structure dualism. Personal construct theory (Kelly, 1955, cited in Butt, 2007; Stevens, 2002) and the trait theory of personality (Eysenck and Rathman, 1965, cited in Butt, 2007) are two different approaches to individual differences in personality which contribute two different explanations to why people act in different ways in the same sort of situations (Butt, 2007). The strength of the personal construct theory is that it gives a much more detailed, holistic contribution to our understanding of individual differences in personality than the trait theory which sees personality as fixed and biologically determined. Personal construct theory sees individuals as having a fluid personality which changes through the individual interacting with their social world and so has contributed to individuals understandings of personality by showing them how they can change their constructions (i.e. the repertory grid). But, personal construct theory has a weakness as its findings can not be generalised like the trait theory can. So, although both theories contribute much to our understandings of individual differences to personality, personal construct theory has a greater contribution as it is more holistic and recognises that the social world and the individuals agency play a vital role in personality which is something that trait theory does not (Butt, 2007). Word Count: 2191 (excluding title). Butt, T. (2004) Personality Theories 1: Trait, Biological and Cognitive Social Approaches in Understanding People, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrove Macmillian. Butt, T. (2007) Individual Differences in Langdridge, D. and Taylor, S. (2007) (eds) Critical readings in Social Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Hollway, W. (2007) Social Psychology: past and present, in Hollway, W, Lucey, H. and Phoenix, A. (2007) (eds) Social Psychology Matters. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Stevens, R. (2002) Person Psychology: Psychoanalytic and Humanistic Perspectivesin Miell, D, Phoenix, A. and Thomas, K. (Eds.), Mapping Psychology Book 2, Chapter 9, Milton Keynes: The Open University.

Native American and The US government Essay -- essays papers

Native American and The US government The Iroquois Nation was a nation of five tribes, which was comprised of Mohawks, Senecas, Oneidas, Cayugas, and Onondagas. These tribes were originally separated, but later brought together by two Indians named Hiawatha and Deganawidah. Hiawatha seemed to be the spokesman while Deganawidah took on the role as a philosopher. These two men formed a nation where some of the ideas are still intact today. One aspect that made them so strong was the way in which they governed themselves. Women in their society were basically in charge, except for the Sachems who were representatives appointed by the heads of the Ohwachiras. When this federal assembly met, the Sachems voted as tribes instead as individuals. This in many ways can be compared to present day government electoral votes. Another aspect I found that created a strong unity was the arrangement of power, which was demonstrated in their seating arrangement. The Mohawks and Senecas sat on one side, while the Oneidas and Cayugas on the other. The two tribes were separated with the Onondagas sitting between them. This arrangement was a lot like present day’s balance of power in the three different branches of the Federal Government. The government of the Iroquois Nation has set themselves apart from almost all other Indians of North America and made it a powerful force in denouncing the Indians as being savages. Today’s Native American has adopted many of the ideas of the Iroquois Nation. Native American history is handed down amongst the tribes through spoken language and rituals. Native American religion is centered on the idea that every day items as well as the nature surrounding them can possess spirit. Euro-Christian’s views are more anonymous as to religion and more scientific concerning their history. Native American’s view of history contains many inconclusive facts when looked at from a European point of view. When you consider their lack of a written language, there are many instances where they do name specific places from which they originate. Unlike the Euro-Christians, these places the Native American’s speak of can be found today. In contrast, Euro-Christian religion/history speaks of the Garden of Eden, but with no specific location as to where the garden can be found. Native American history is interwoven with... ...for what they needed to exist, not to turn a profit and destroy nature (the wilderness). Native Americans thought of gifts as symbolic gestures of friendship and peace at first. They would look at all trade as an exchange of gifts. They would have feasts after trades with the French, for instance to bolster the moral and finalize a deal. Even when the stakes were high and the Europeans knew that it was a gift and not a trade, the natives thought it to be a gift. When the Europeans traded gifts to the Natives for land, the Natives assumed they were trading a gift for the use of land, not knowing that land can be owned. Land was a sacred thing to the Natives and I doubt they would have traded any of it, if they knew the implications of these gifts they were receiving (in trade). The Europeans on the other hand knew that the natives didn’t know what some of these trades meant. A few Europeans tried to explain it to the natives, but to no avail. The Natives didn’t understand to the Europeans delight. They used this against the Natives who couldn’t have known the value of what they were giving up. The Europeans were at fault by knowing these trades to be absurd and unfair.

The Harlem Renaissance: A Black Cultural Revolution Essay -- American

The Harlem Renaissance- A Black Cultural Revolution James Weldon Johnson once said that "Harlem is indeed the great Mecca for the sight-seer; the pleasure seeker, the curious, the adventurous, the enterprising, the ambitious and the talented of the whole Negro world."("Harlem Renaissance") When one thinks of the Harlem Renaissance, one thinks of the great explosion of creativity bursting from the talented minds of African-Americans in the 1920s. Although principally thought of as an African-American literary movement, the Harlem Renaissance's influence extended through every form of culture: art, dance, music, theatre, literature, history, and politics. Along with the great contribution this period made towards art and entertainment, the Harlem Renaissance also made a great impact on a social level. The Harlem Renaissance gave birth to the first African-American cultural identity and played a significant role in the political thought of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. How did the Harlem Renaissance become a hub of Black culture and identity? Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period known as the Great Migration took place. 750,000 African Americans fled the economically depressed rural South and migrated to the urban cities of the North to take advantage of the numerous employment opportunities and racially tolerant atmosphere. 175,000 of these African-Americans settled in New York City. Between the end of World War I and 1924, some significant works made by African-Americans were published; these works revealed the increasing creative fervor developing in Harlem. The groundbreaking book A Social History of the American Negro by Benjamin Brawley was published. The book that really drew attention to Harle... ...f the Soul Men." History Today Aug. 1997: 31(2). Student Resource Center Junior. Thomson Gale. 17 Nov. 2005 . Carrick Hill, Laban. Harlem Stomp! New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2003. 52-73. "Harlem Renaissance." Wikipedia . 16 Nov. 2005. 17 Nov. 2005 Powell, Richard. "How did the Harlem Renaissance affect the politics leading up to the Civil Rights Movement?" Interview with Titus King. PBS Online Newshour. 20 Feb. 1998. PBS. 17 Nov. 2005. . Stewart, Jeffrey. "How did the Harlem Renaissance affect the politics leading up to the Civil Rights Movement?" Interview with Titus King. PBS Online Newshour. 20 Feb. 1998. PBS. 17 Nov. 2005 . Stuart, Andrea. "The Harlem Renaissance in the twenties produced a wealth of black talent. But what was its legacy and who did it really benefit?" New Statesman 27 June 1997: 3-3. LookSmart.com. 19 Oct. 2005 .

Alcohol and Drinking - Alcoholism as a Disease Essay -- Exploratory Es

Alcoholism as a Disease   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unfortunately, alcohol brings on the risk of many diseases. "Recent evidence indicates that a wide variety of diseased conditions are brought about by a substance that coats the body's red cells, causing them to adhere to one another in clumps. These clumps, sometimes called 'sludge,' can be created by the ingestion of alcohol"(Burgess,p.130). Alcohol has a disastrous affect on all of the body's organs, the main one being the brain. "At death, the brain of the dependent drinker or alcoholic invariably will reveal enormous numbers of small areas of atrophy in which brain cells have been destroyed"(Burgess,p.131). The brain begins to shrink when under the influence of alcohol. This means that the space that a brain cell took up is now gone because the cell has been destroyed. "In extreme cases most of what is left [of the brain] may be nothing but connective and structural tissue. The neurons themselves, the cells that do the work of the brain, have been destroyed"(Bur gess,p.132). If drinkers, casual or heavy, knew more about alcohol and the effects this drug has on the brain, the number of drinkers would probably drop to a very low amount of people. Unfortunately, this type of material is not made available to many people unless people got suddenly interested to look up the effects alcohol has on the body. There is another type of disease people do not know about called the D.T.'s. This disease is that of body convulsions. This disease is commonly mistaken as being epilepsy, but it is caused by alcohol. It is caused by people trying to quit drinking. The body is suddenly taken off a sedative and is having withdrawals. The withdrawals are convulsions which also kills brain cells. "Depende... ...t also all of the innocent people that are involved. With so many scary things that can happen to the body, why enhance death when a person ca try to prevent it?    Works Cited: Burgess, Louise Bailey. "Alcohol and your health" 1973. Denzin, Norman K. The Recovering Alcoholic. New York: Sage Publications, 1987.    Works Consutled: Berger, Gilda.   Alcoholism and the family.  Ã‚   New York:   Franking Watts, 1993. Graeber, Laurel.   Are you Dying for a Drink?:   Teenagers and Alcohol Abuse.   Ã‚  Ã‚   NewYork: Julian Messner, 1992. Kowalski, Kathiann.   "The Dangers of Alcohol."   Current Health   2 February 1998: 6-7. CD-ROM. Marlatt, Alan G.   "Alcoholism: Disease or Addiction?"   Professional Counselor October 1996: 104. Schulte, Brigid.   "How to Deal with a Family Alcoholic." Knight-Ridder Newspaper 23 December 1997.   CD-ROM.   

Discuss the portrayal of Indian society in this poem

Deception, written by Rabindranath Tagore is told through the eyes of a narrator, who is the husband of Binu. He tells a story of Binu and her husband and their life together in Indian society. In the poem the portrayal of Indian life, is illustrated through various aspects, such as arranged marriages; the class distinctions, Laksmi the goddess, the poverty and dowries. The class distinctions in Hindu society are called the Caste system. This is portrayed in the poem at several occasions. When Binu introduces Rukmini to her husband and explains that Rukmini needs money. ‘She looked me in the eyes, Bowed, withdrew to the platform where she stood clutching a pillar' This shows that obviously Rukmini was in a lower class than Binu's husband because of the way she reacted, she bowed to and then withdrew from his presence and stood at a distance. I think that Rukmini might have been in the ‘untouchable' caste because she did not consider herself worthy enough to even stand in the presence of Binu's husband. She had to go and stand at a distance while Binu explained Rukmini's need for money. The way that she bowed in front of him also portrays that she was lower class than him because she was showing him a sign of respect. In The Caste system the Jats determine which range of jobs you do. Marriage usually took place between people of the same Jat and people normally died in the same group. There are certain rules that say that people in different Jats cannot eat, drink or even smoke in each others company. The word clutching shows the fact that Rukmini was desperate and that she really need help, this also supports that she was in the untouchables caste. There are four groups which are called the Varna. There is also a fifth which are called the ‘untouchables'. The untouchables did not belong to any caste. They were called the Dalit. They were untouched by the four other castes. In some areas even their shadow touching a member of the Varnas was considered polluting. They worked in what was considered polluting jobs and were never accepted by society. The Highest status was called the Brahmins and this consisted of priests and intellectuals. I think that Binu's husband and Binu herself were part of this caste because it says in the poem ‘And began to read an English novel that I had bought' This shows that Binu's husband was very well educated because he spoke English and only the rich and high powered could afford to learn to speak English. This therefore supports the fact that Binu and her husband are from the Brahmin's caste. In the quotation ‘Whoever heard of such a thing? The woman was probably a sweeper or something equally disgusting' The harsh sounding of the word disgusting shows the contempt and hatred that the upper caste show towards the untouchables. It shows the fact that Rukmini was part of the ‘untouchables' caste because Binu's husband was saying that Rukmini had some equally disgusting job such as a sweeper. This therefore would have been considered a polluting job so she would not have been fit to been seen associating with. There is another quotation that supports the fact that there were huge distinctions in class. ‘†Where is Rukmini?† They reacted blankly†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ This shows that Rukmini was very unimportant because even the people in the lower castes of the Varna did not have any sort of idea who Rukmini was, when Binu's husband asked after her at the station. The word blankly shows that even though Rukmini had worked and lived at the train station for years, she was still so irrelevant that no one had even noticed that she was there and that she had gone. The only recognised who she was when Binu's husband said ‘†The wife of Jhamru the coolie†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ Rukmini was obviously so insignificant that they did not even know her by name and she used to work at the station. The only reason that they recognised her was because Binu's husband remembered the name of her husband. Then they only barely remembered who she was because they recognised the name of Rukmini's husband. ‘She lives in the row of huts by the well over there;' This also links the fact that Rukmini is in the ‘untouchables' caste because she lives in poverty. She did not live in a very respectably, she lived in a shack, by the side of the train station; she had no land and no money, not even able to find 25 rupees for her daughters dowry. She did not belong to one of the four Varna, so she was nobody of importance to bother about. The next subject that I am going to discuss is arranged marriages. I think that perhaps Binu and her husband had, had an arranged marriage because it says in the poem that ‘Left her parents-in-laws house for the first time since marriage' ‘Our meetings furtive' This shows that the couple had not met of their own accord, but that their parents have arranged for them to meet. They have only met secretly and on very brief occasions. This shows that there was an arranged marriage because you do not marry someone that you have only met a few times in your life. Parents when looking for a suitable husband for their daughter in arranged marriages have to look for certain things such as the social castes that they are in and financial status. It is the girl's parents that traditionally pay for the wedding as a gift to the newly wed couple. They shower the girl with presents that she is to give to the groom's family when she moves in. It is traditional that the bride goes to live in the groom's family. When the couple marry everything that once was the wife's now officially belongs to the husband. The quotation above says that Binu after living with her parents-in-law left there house for the first time. This supports the fact that Binu and her husband have had an arranged marriage. Another quotation that supports the fact that the couple had, had an arranged marriage is ‘The airless sequestration of the joint family' This portrays that the family have lived in very close contact with Binu and her husband. I think that maybe the family have been interfering with the couple. The word sequestration suggests the fact that the family have been interfering with the couple, because sequestration means enclosure, which suggests that Binu and her husband were enclosed with the family they did everything together. ‘Like the everlasting vermilion in the parting of laksmi's hair' Laksmi is the goddess of wealth and beauty. Laksmi is the household goddess and she is a favourite among women. She is depicted as a beautiful woman who has four hands. She is either sitting or standing on a full bloomed lotus, which stands for beauty purity and fertility. Her four hands represent the four ends of human life Dharma- righteousness Kama- desires Artha- wealth Moksha- liberation. In the Krishna avtara Laksmi comes to earth as Rukmini. This is particularly interesting since the Lady that Binu's husband was meant to give twenty five rupees to was also called Rukmini. I think that maybe the goddess Laksmi was testing Binu's husband to see whether he had any compassion for the people who were in lower castes than him. If this is so then the husband failed the test because he treated Rukmini with contempt and only out of pity did he give her two rupees? He then however, told Binu that he had given Rukmini the whole twenty five rupees. Rukmini based the whole of her last two months of life on the fact that her husband loved her so much that he would give twenty five rupees to a complete stranger who Binu had met and befriended at the train station. However, just before Binu died she told her husband this. Her husband was filled with guilt and repentance. He went back to try and find Rukmini and pays her the twenty five rupees that he owed her, so that it would ease his conscience. Rukmini had moved on and this was the husband's punishment. He had to deal with the fact that he had lied to his wife and now had to live with the guilt and desperation. This I think is the meaning of Laksmi being mentioned in this poem. The dowry is quite significant in the poem since it is the reason that Binu asks her husband to pay the twenty five rupees to Rukmini, and the whole reason that the husband feels so guilty at the end. A dowry is a gift that the bride's family give to the groom's family upon marriage. In some of the richer castes dowries are an exchange of wealth between too families which are intermarrying. In many countries the dowry is a large part of property which is either exchanged or given to the family. The dowry insures that the wife will not be badly treated by the husband because it acts as a forfeit from the wife's family to the groom's. ‘Bracelets, bangles, armlets for the dowry' This is what Rukmini asks the money for so that she can buy a suitable dowry for her daughter so that she will not be rejected by the husband. The dowry that Rukmini wants to give is not particularly extensive, so this also supports the idea that Rukmini is not particularly rich since in wealthy families large amounts of land and property are given as dowry presents. If the brides family do not give a dowry then it is seen as disrespect and the whole wedding can be called off, since the groom's family do want to marry into a family that either disrespect the rules of the dowry system or they are not wealthy enough to supply a sufficient dowry for there daughters wedding. This is therefore what Rukmini is saying in the poem, she is pleading to Binu because I think that perhaps she feels that she will get a better reaction out of a woman who has never really seen the world and has lived rather a sheltered life, than a man who is in one of the highest groups of the Varna. She is saying that if she cannot afford the dowry and if she does not give one then her daughter will be rejected from the marriage, which will be embarrassing for the family. Therefore, I conclude that the poet has used the portrayal of Indian Society to try and make people who are reading the poem understand the way that Indian Society actually works. The poet portrays the caste system in this prejudiced way because maybe he feels that the system is principally unjust. The Caste system has many floors, but it has brought some sort of order to Indian Society meaning that people are recognised and distinguished. The poet uses the portrayal of Indian Society very well to get the effect of the drama and desperation in the poem. The poor lady Rukmini needs money so that her daughter can get married she is desperate for help and pity from the rich. However the uncompassionate husband feels that Rukmini is unworthy of even touching his shadow.

Different Forms Of Ownership

A condescension that is carried on by a repair proprietary is possessed by unmatched psyche, who in b atomic number 18ly case usu assoilly(a)y egests and knows the vocation. in that respect whitethorn or whitethorn non be people working in the patronage these argon referred to as employees of the stage ph angiotensin-converting enzyme line and the possessor is the employer. The touch on proprietary receives each benefit and is intelligently required to lead and punish all losings in the flesh(predicate)ly. The m annihilate proprietary is ainly licap fit for debts of the blood. So that, the fillet of doctor proprietary has untrammelled financial engagement to honour summations owing, or debts, of the calling.For example, if the strain incurs debts resultanting from a imprimatur claim, thusly the individual leave be held answerable for those debts, and either claims exiting be made against the individuals individual(pre token(a) ) as garnishs. As well, repair proprietarys atomic number 18 imposeed at a lower place the ain valuate system. The bushel proprietary it is unprovoked to rear up and whitethorn altogether require adaptation of the melody holler and is free to run the crinkle as he or she thinks scoop surface and is non answerable to a boss. As for the ca-ca of the strain, the call up of the decl argonr or either an early(a)(prenominal) label whitethorn be implementd.Normally, a mend proprietary clientele requires a clarified heart and soul of uppercase to suck up with, compargond with rebounder(a) var.s of subscriber line entities. Examples of touch on proprietary assembly linees argon abridge shops, beauty saloons, restaurants, launderettes and mini market. union is an affiliation of 2 or very much than persons or entities that carry on channel as coadjutors. The first mates usually run and manage the descent. However, at that place may be a n whizzffervescent provide who does non bestow whatsoever part in the campaign of the chore even though they contract contri nonwithstandinged bang-up to the league.In a compact, each retainer is in person apt(p) for all debts incurred by the agate line in the event of the unwaverings failure, each partners individualized as distinguishs argon jeopardized. In the coalition, the partners should submit a intelligent agreement that flummoxs forrad how decisions pass on be made, cyberspace leave behind be sh ard, disputes will be resolved, how rising partners will be admitted to the league, how partners stinker be bought break, and what steps will be interpreted to adjourn the federation when leaseed. in that respect argon deuce basics frames of alliances, cosmopolitan and peculiar(a).In a general union, all partners score countless(prenominal) indebtedness, man in a travelling bag in union, at to the lowest degree star partner has indebted ness moderate provided to his or her enthronisation while at least one other partner has good indebtedness. Examples of league be law or news report firms, medical or alveolar consonant practices In partnership that atomic number 18 umpteen cordial of partner, for example Ostensible spo wont brisk and cognise as a partner. hush-hush collaborator Active but not cognize or held erupt as a partner. Dormant abetter _or_ abettor nonoperational and not know or held bulge step forward as a partner. obt use henchman Inactive (but may be known to be a partner)Nominal Partner non a aline partner in whatever sense, not cosmosness a party to the partnership agreement. However, a nominal partner holds him or herself out as a partner, or permits others to grade much(prenominal) representation by the use of his/her name or other than A come with is a tell apart lawful entity peeed under the Corpo symmetryns Act 2001. Commonly, its possessors argon called sh beh olders and their possession interests argon represented by sh ars in the fraternity. The crack up intelligent perspective of the familiarity has m either an(prenominal) implications for the entity. First, the confederacy female genitals go in into contracts, incur debts and wear assess revenue incomees severally of its owners.The owners recompense individual tax revenuees only on the social club sugar gainful out to them in the work of salaries, bonuses and dividends. The sh beholders ar not presumable for the beau mondes debts one snip the addresss they hold open been give for in wide-eyed. For example, if a play a colossal issued $1 shargons, with 60 cents collectible on application and the rest 40 cents stipendable by prox installments, the sh areholders obligation in the event of the fellowship collapsing would be re maining 40 cents on each share they own. This feature is known as moderate liability that is, their obligation is exceptional to the amount, if whatever, unpaid on their shares.As a fall apart legal entity, a club has umteen of the rights, duties and responsibilities of a innate(p) person. It hindquarters, through with(predicate) its movers, buy, own and fail property in its own name and engage in patronage c formerlyrn activities by entering into contracts with others. It has legal billet in a act and merchant ship sue and be sued, is de jure responsible for its liabilities, and essential(prenominal) allowance income tax just as a natural person does. Different fibre of tune self- condition has disparate type of characteristics, what is the dissimilar mingled with each other?The major distinguishable characteristics of each other are tax consideration, liability, duration, ease and speak to of nail down up. valuate Consideration The bushel possessorship any income to the work is treated as income to the melodic phrase owner and all income is inform on individual tax retu rn, and is taxed in the yr it is received. Business deductions are permitted. art object in partnership, a compact promise fuck allocate the profits or departurees in any ratio concur to between the partners but if there is no Agreement, the profits must be allocated equally.Business deductions are taken by the partnership sooner the income is distributed to the partners and claimed on their ain tax returns. The profit of a bon ton is taxed to the company when earned, and so is taxed to the shareholders when distributed as dividends. This creates a parlay tax. The participation does not get a tax deduction when it distributes dividends to shareholders. Shareholders sensnot deduct any loss of the partnership. Liability In mend proprietors baffle un contain liability and are legally responsible for all debts against the affair. Their caper and personal ascurings are at risk.In union, partners are liable for all the debts of the disdain and the full amount of th ese debts plunder be imperturbable from one or much of the partners rather than the debt cosmos equally shared. Partners send away in addition be held liable for acts commit by one of their partners in the normal cable of telephone line. Owners of a Company fork up the liability safeguard of a great deal. That is because, the company hold outs as a separate entity much the likes of a jackpot. A company member potentiometernot be held personally liable for debts unless they confuse sign a personal guarantee. will power interestsOwnership interests in a company may be sold to third parties without pitiful the go on operation of the line of reasoning enterprise. A furbish up proprietorship or partnership, on the other hand, cannot be sold whole age The re doctor proprietorship remains in human beings for as want as the owner is willing or able to plosive consonant in business. When the owner dies, the repair proprietorship no longer exists. The as en traps and liabilities of the business extend part of the owners e situate. A touch on proprietor can freely convey a business by interchange all or a serving of the assets of the business.In partnership the business ecesis ends with demolition, incapacity, insularity or pious platituderuptcy of any partner, unless otherwise agree to in a fusion Agreement. In company form a tenacity of living, it has the power to exist ever and, accordingly, is unmoved by the goal of an owner or manager or by the designate of ownership interests. Ease and bell of set up The fix proprietorship and partnership it is at life-size(p) to set up and may register a shell out name to promote its products and services. While in company, a company must be registered with the recording machine of Companies.Company cost more to set up and run than a re doctor proprietorship or partnership. For example, there are the sign organisation fees, filing fees and yearly secern fees. However, t hese costs are part first gear by lower restitution costs. limber Beside that, a partnership may be congressly more ductile in the decision making assist than in a corporation. But, it may be less so than in a sole proprietorship. That is because sole proprietorship forethought is able to respond quickly to business of necessity in the form of twenty-four hours to solar day oversight decisions as goerned by different laws and good sense.Capital Rising A corporation has many avenues to burn down not bad(p). It can sell shares of stock and create innovative types of stock, such(prenominal) as preferred stock, with different voter turnout or profit characteristics. Partnership surd to rising additional capital but easier than sole proprietorship, that is because, sole proprietorship are the only owner, therefore cant sell any shares to pedigree business growth, and banks are more atheistical rough lending funds to sole proprietorships. in that respect are several returnss to universe a sole proprietorship.First, the sole proprietorship entity is a quick, nickel-and-dime(prenominal) and flabby form of business to prepare, and can be in valuable to whirl down. In this type of business, there are no specific business taxes paid by the company. The owner pays taxes on income from the business as part of personal income tax payments. A sole proprietor has complete control and decision-making power over the business, and is therefore free to choose the steering of the business and it strategies and policies.Sale or transfer can take place at the treat of the sole proprietor. furbish up proprietorship can control all the asset and funds of business and can takemoney out of company for personal use at any snip, as long as make sure the business bills are paid. Sole proprietorship is relative emancipation from government control. The further expediency is that the owner claims all the profits of the business. there are several disadvant ages to beingness a sole proprietorship. Sole proprietorships business is not a separate legal entity. therefore, if the business is entangled in any form of legal dispute, the individual owner has un restrain liability, which means the sole proprietor of the business can be held personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business.Additionally, this risk extends to any liabilities incurred as a result of acts committed by employees of the company. The sole proprietorship comparatively limited viewpoint and experience that is because sole proprietorship is limited by the skill, epoch and investing of the individual owner. Sole proprietorship are unstable business life, the enterprise may be crippled or modify upon illness or death of the owner. There are several advantages to being a partnership. First, the partnerships are relatively easy to set up however time should be invested in developing the partnership agreement.Partnership files informational tax return. P artnership income is reportable and taxed on partners personal income tax returns. The main advantage of a partnership over a sole proprietorship is that the partnership combines the skills, talents, and friendship of two or more people, and all partners have equal rights in the counselling of the partnership business The main disadvantages of partnership are partnership is characterized by unlimited liability. Therefore, the partners are fully responsible for all business debts and obligations, irrespective of their involvement in the entity.The partnership form has a limited life therefore it may end with death, incapacity, masturbation or bankruptcy of any partner. A great number of partnerships commence themselves twisty in disputes because of disagreements concerning profit share-out or decision making for the business. Partnership is limited financial therefore it may only borrow money or use partners savings. Must be change estate and reform to admit additional partner s regard to invest. A further disadvantage is known as mutual influence. Mutual agency is any partner acts as an agent for the partnership and for every other partner.Therefore, a partner can represent the other partners and moderate them to a contract if he or she is acting within the seeming mountain range of the business. Partnership is relative trouble in obtaining large sums of capital. This is particularly true of long term financing when compared to a corporation. However, by using individual partners assets, opportunities are credibly greater than in a proprietorship. The main advantages of forming a company is the limited liability protection provided to its owners. Because a corporation is considered a separate legal entity, the shareholders have limited liability for the corporations debts.The personal assets of shareholders are not at risk for delicious incarnate debts or liabilities. Companies are fetching investment. The integral stock structure of a corpora tion makes it attractive to investors. The company form has a continuity of life, it has the power to exist forever and, therefore, is unaffected by the death of an owner or manager or by the transfer of ownership interests. separate advantages of company is taxation, owners of a company only pay taxes on company profits paid to them in the form of salaries, bonuses, and dividends. The company pays taxes, at the company rate, on any profits.Companies also have the ability to raise large amounts of capital through human race share offerings. Companies have a set management structure. The owners of a company are shareholders, who elite a Board of Directors, which then elects the officers. near other than the election of directors, shareholders do not come in in the operations of the company. There are several disadvantages to the company form of business structure. First, the company is more expensive and time-consuming to establish. Companies are monitored by federal, state an d some local agencies, and as a result may have more paperwork to approve with regulations.Company set up cost are expansive that is because company have to pay many fees to set up the business there are the initial formation fees, filing fees and annual state fees. Beside that, paperwork is a huge component of the company formality that must followed. For example, business bank accounts and inscribes must be maintained and kept separate from personal accounts and assets. . In company may result in higher(prenominal) overall taxes. C corporations have emf double-tax consequences once when the company makes its profit, and a import time when dividends are paid to shareholders.S corporations can rationalise this tax issue. Company is revealing of names of in collectived officers and directors. Most states do not require that names of shareholders be a matter of public record however, many states require that the names and addresses of corporate officers and directors be li sted on one or more documents filed with the Secretary of State. The proper corporate formalities of organizing and running a corporation must be followed, to receive the benefits of being a corporation. I preferred form a sole proprietorship. Sole proprietorship business has many advantages suitable to form in Malaysia.First, a sole proprietorship is the to the highest degree basic of all forms of business ownerships. more small businesses are sole proprietorships. Next, a sole proprietorship is easy to establish compare to partnership and company. Sole proprietorship doesnt have to do anything peculiar(prenominal) or file papers to set one up. Sole proprietorship typically requires few if any legal documents and minimum record keeping. Beside that, sole proprietorship may register a change over name to promote its products and services. The sole proprietorship is not a taxable entity.Income from the organization is plain added to the owners personal income to determine ta xable income. Sole proprietorship only one person involved in the business therefore it is easy to decide if and when the person decides to stop run as a business. A sole proprietorship is the least expensive type of business structure to establish. There is no need for a lawyer or for an exuberant amount of money to be set aside in locate to pay a number of fees. Corporations are much more expensive to start up. Therefore, sole proprietorship can be started jolly easily with minimal capital requirements.Different Forms of OwnershipA business that is carried on by a sole proprietorship is owned by one person, who also usually runs and manages the business. There may or may not be people working in the business these are referred to as employees of the business and the owner is the employer. The sole proprietorship receives all profits and is legally required to bear and satisfy all losses personally. The sole proprietorship is personally liable for debts of the business. So that , the sole proprietorship has unlimited liability to repay amounts owing, or debts, of the business.For example, if the business incurs debts resulting from a warranty claim, then the individual will be held responsible for those debts, and any claims will be made against the individuals personal assets. As well, sole proprietorships are taxed under the personal tax system. The sole proprietorship it is easy to set up and may only require registration of the business name and is free to run the business as he or she thinks best and is not answerable to a boss. As for the name of the business, the name of the owner or any other name may be used.Normally, a sole proprietorship business requires a small amount of capital to start with, compared with other forms of business entities. Examples of sole proprietorship businesses are tailor shops, beauty saloons, restaurants, launderettes and mini market. Partnership is an association of two or more persons or entities that carry on busines s as partners. The partners usually run and manage the business. However, there may be a silent partner who does not take any part in the running of the business even though they have contributed capital to the partnership.In a partnership, each partner is personally liable for all debts incurred by the business in the event of the firms failure, each partners personal assets are jeopardized. In the partnership, the partners should have a legal agreement that sets forth how decisions will be made, profits will be shared, disputes will be resolved, how future partners will be admitted to the partnership, how partners can be bought out, and what steps will be taken to dissolve the partnership when needed. There are two basics forms of partnerships, general and limited.In a general partnership, all partners have unlimited liability, while in a limited partnership, at least one partner has liability limited only to his or her investment while at least one other partner has full liabilit y. Examples of partnership are law or accounting firms, medical or dental practices In partnership that are many kind of partner, for example Ostensible Partner Active and known as a partner. Secret Partner Active but not known or held out as a partner. Dormant Partner Inactive and not known or held out as a partner. Silent Partner Inactive (but may be known to be a partner)Nominal Partner Not a true partner in any sense, not being a party to the partnership agreement. However, a nominal partner holds him or herself out as a partner, or permits others to make such representation by the use of his/her name or otherwise A company is a separate legal entity formed under the Corporations Act 2001. Commonly, its owners are called shareholders and their ownership interests are represented by shares in the company. The separate legal status of the company has many implications for the entity. First, the company can enter into contracts, incur debts and pay taxes independently of its owners .The owners pay individual taxes only on the company profit paid out to them in the form of salaries, bonuses and dividends. The shareholders are not liable for the companys debts once the shares they hold have been paid for in full. For example, if a company issued $1 shares, with 60 cents payable on application and the remaining 40 cents payable by future installments, the shareholders liability in the event of the company collapsing would be remaining 40 cents on each share they own. This feature is known as limited liability that is, their obligation is limited to the amount, if any, unpaid on their shares.As a separate legal entity, a company has many of the rights, duties and responsibilities of a natural person. It can, through its agents, buy, own and sell property in its own name and engage in business activities by entering into contracts with others. It has legal status in a court and can sue and be sued, is legally responsible for its liabilities, and must pay income tax just as a natural person does. Different type of business ownership has different type of characteristics, what is the different between each other?The major different characteristics of each other are tax consideration, liability, duration, ease and cost of set up. Tax Consideration The sole proprietorship any income to the business is treated as income to the business owner and all income is reported on individual tax return, and is taxed in the year it is received. Business deductions are permitted. While in partnership, a Partnership Agreement can allocate the profits or losses in any ratio agreed to between the partners but if there is no Agreement, the profits must be allocated equally.Business deductions are taken by the partnership before the income is distributed to the partners and claimed on their personal tax returns. The profit of a company is taxed to the company when earned, and then is taxed to the shareholders when distributed as dividends. This creates a double ta x. The corporation does not get a tax deduction when it distributes dividends to shareholders. Shareholders cannot deduct any loss of the corporation. Liability In Sole proprietors have unlimited liability and are legally responsible for all debts against the business. Their business and personal assets are at risk.In Partnership, partners are liable for all the debts of the business and the full amount of these debts can be collected from one or more of the partners rather than the debt being equally shared. Partners can also be held liable for acts committed by one of their partners in the normal course of business. Owners of a Company have the liability protection of a corporation. That is because, the company exists as a separate entity much like a corporation. A company member cannot be held personally liable for debts unless they have signed a personal guarantee. Ownership interestsOwnership interests in a company may be sold to third parties without disturbing the continued o peration of the business. A sole proprietorship or partnership, on the other hand, cannot be sold whole Duration The sole proprietorship remains in existence for as long as the owner is willing or able to stay in business. When the owner dies, the sole proprietorship no longer exists. The assets and liabilities of the business become part of the owners estate. A sole proprietor can freely transfer a business by selling all or a portion of the assets of the business.In partnership the business organization ends with death, incapacity, withdrawal or bankruptcy of any partner, unless otherwise agreed to in a Partnership Agreement. In company form a continuity of life, it has the power to exist forever and, therefore, is unaffected by the death of an owner or manager or by the transfer of ownership interests. Ease and cost of set up The sole proprietorship and partnership it is easy to set up and may register a trade name to promote its products and services. While in company, a company must be registered with the Registrar of Companies.Company cost more to set up and run than a sole proprietorship or partnership. For example, there are the initial formation fees, filing fees and annual state fees. However, these costs are partially offset by lower insurance costs. Flexible Beside that, a partnership may be relatively more flexible in the decision making process than in a corporation. But, it may be less so than in a sole proprietorship. That is because sole proprietorship management is able to respond quickly to business needs in the form of day to day management decisions as governed by various laws and good sense.Capital Rising A corporation has many avenues to raise capital. It can sell shares of stock and create new types of stock, such as preferred stock, with different voting or profit characteristics. Partnership difficult to rising additional capital but easier than sole proprietorship, that is because, sole proprietorship are the only owner, therefore ca nt sell any shares to fund business growth, and banks are more skeptical about lending money to sole proprietorships. There are several advantages to being a sole proprietorship.First, the sole proprietorship entity is a quick, inexpensive and easy form of business to establish, and can be inexpensive to wind down. In this type of business, there are no specific business taxes paid by the company. The owner pays taxes on income from the business as part of personal income tax payments. A sole proprietor has complete control and decision-making power over the business, and is therefore free to choose the direction of the business and it strategies and policies. Sale or transfer can take place at the slightness of the sole proprietor.Sole proprietorship can control all the asset and money of business and can takemoney out of company for personal use at any time, as long as make sure the business bills are paid. Sole proprietorship is relative freedom from government control. The furt her advantage is that the owner claims all the profits of the business. There are several disadvantages to being a sole proprietorship. Sole proprietorships business is not a separate legal entity. Therefore, if the business is involved in any form of legal dispute, the individual owner has unlimited liability, which means the sole proprietor of the business can be held personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business.Additionally, this risk extends to any liabilities incurred as a result of acts committed by employees of the company. The sole proprietorship relatively limited viewpoint and experience that is because sole proprietorship is limited by the skill, time and investment of the individual owner. Sole proprietorship are unstable business life, the enterprise may be crippled or terminated upon illness or death of the owner. There are several advantages to being a partnership. First, the partnerships are relatively easy to set up however time should be invested in developing the partnership agreement.Partnership files informational tax return. Partnership income is reportable and taxed on partners personal income tax returns. The main advantage of a partnership over a sole proprietorship is that the partnership combines the skills, talents, and knowledge of two or more people, and all partners have equal rights in the management of the partnership business The main disadvantages of partnership are partnership is characterized by unlimited liability. Therefore, the partners are fully responsible for all business debts and obligations, irrespective of their involvement in the entity.The partnership form has a limited life therefore it may end with death, incapacity, withdrawal or bankruptcy of any partner. A great number of partnerships find themselves involved in disputes because of disagreements concerning profit sharing or decision making for the business. Partnership is limited financial therefore it may only borrow money or use partner s savings. Must be dissolved and better to admit additional partners wishing to invest. A further disadvantage is known as mutual agency. Mutual agency is every partner acts as an agent for the partnership and for every other partner.Therefore, a partner can represent the other partners and bind them to a contract if he or she is acting within the apparent scope of the business. Partnership is relative difficulty in obtaining large sums of capital. This is particularly true of long term financing when compared to a corporation. However, by using individual partners assets, opportunities are probably greater than in a proprietorship. The main advantages of forming a company is the limited liability protection provided to its owners. Because a corporation is considered a separate legal entity, the shareholders have limited liability for the corporations debts.The personal assets of shareholders are not at risk for satisfying corporate debts or liabilities. Companies are attractive in vestment. The built-in stock structure of a corporation makes it attractive to investors. The company form has a continuity of life, it has the power to exist forever and, therefore, is unaffected by the death of an owner or manager or by the transfer of ownership interests. Other advantages of company is taxation, owners of a company only pay taxes on company profits paid to them in the form of salaries, bonuses, and dividends. The company pays taxes, at the company rate, on any profits.Companies also have the ability to raise large amounts of capital through public share offerings. Companies have a set management structure. The owners of a company are shareholders, who elect a Board of Directors, which then elects the officers. Other than the election of directors, shareholders do not participate in the operations of the company. There are several disadvantages to the company form of business structure. First, the company is more expensive and time-consuming to establish. Companie s are monitored by federal, state and some local agencies, and as a result may have more paperwork to comply with regulations.Company set up cost are expansive that is because company have to pay many fees to set up the business there are the initial formation fees, filing fees and annual state fees. Beside that, paperwork is a huge component of the company formalities that must followed. For example, business bank accounts and records must be maintained and kept separate from personal accounts and assets. . In company may result in higher overall taxes. C corporations have potential double-tax consequences once when the company makes its profit, and a second time when dividends are paid to shareholders.S corporations can mitigate this tax issue. Company is disclosure of names of corporate officers and directors. Most states do not require that names of shareholders be a matter of public record however, many states require that the names and addresses of corporate officers and dire ctors be listed on one or more documents filed with the Secretary of State. The proper corporate formalities of organizing and running a corporation must be followed, to receive the benefits of being a corporation. I preferred form a sole proprietorship. Sole proprietorship business has many advantages suitable to form in Malaysia.First, a sole proprietorship is the most basic of all forms of business ownerships. Many small businesses are sole proprietorships. Next, a sole proprietorship is easy to establish compare to partnership and company. Sole proprietorship doesnt have to do anything special or file papers to set one up. Sole proprietorship typically requires few if any legal documents and minimal record keeping. Beside that, sole proprietorship may register a trade name to promote its products and services. The sole proprietorship is not a taxable entity.Income from the organization is simply added to the owners personal income to determine taxable income. Sole proprietorship only one person involved in the business therefore it is easy to dissolve if and when the person decides to stop operating as a business. A sole proprietorship is the least expensive type of business structure to establish. There is no need for a lawyer or for an excessive amount of money to be set aside in order to pay a number of fees. Corporations are much more expensive to start up. Therefore, sole proprietorship can be started fairly easily with minimal capital requirements.